All normal children develop language at roughly the same time, along much the same
schedule. Since we could say the same thing for sitting up, crawling, standing, walking,
using the hands and many other physical activities, it would seem that the language
acquisition schedule has the same basis as the biologically determined development of
motor skills. This biological schedule is tied very much to the maturation of the infant’s
brain.
We could think of the child as having the biological capacity to cope with distinguishing
certain aspects of linguistic input at different stages during the early years of life. Long
before children begin to talk, they have been actively processing what they hear.We can
identify what very young children are paying attention to by the way they increase or decrease “sucking behavior” in response to speech sounds or turn their heads in the
direction of those sounds. At onemonth, for example, an infant is capable of distinguishing
between sounds such as [ba] and [pa]. During the first three months, the child
develops a range of crying styles, with different patterns for different needs, produces
big smiles in response to a speaking face, and starts to create distinct vocalizations.
schedule. Since we could say the same thing for sitting up, crawling, standing, walking,
using the hands and many other physical activities, it would seem that the language
acquisition schedule has the same basis as the biologically determined development of
motor skills. This biological schedule is tied very much to the maturation of the infant’s
brain.
We could think of the child as having the biological capacity to cope with distinguishing
certain aspects of linguistic input at different stages during the early years of life. Long
before children begin to talk, they have been actively processing what they hear.We can
identify what very young children are paying attention to by the way they increase or decrease “sucking behavior” in response to speech sounds or turn their heads in the
direction of those sounds. At onemonth, for example, an infant is capable of distinguishing
between sounds such as [ba] and [pa]. During the first three months, the child
develops a range of crying styles, with different patterns for different needs, produces
big smiles in response to a speaking face, and starts to create distinct vocalizations.
Cooing and babbling
The earliest use of speech-like sounds has been described as cooing. During the first
few months of life, the child gradually becomes capable of producing sequences of
vowel-like sounds, particularly high vowels similar to [i] and [u]. By four months of
age, the developing ability to bring the back of the tongue into regular contact with the
back of the palate allows the infant to create sounds similar to the velar consonants [k]
and [ɡ], hence the common description as “cooing” or “gooing” for this type of
production. Speech perception studies have shown that by the time they are five
months old, babies can already hear the difference between the vowels [i] and [a]
and discriminate between syllables like [ba] and [ɡa].
Between six and eight months, the child is sitting up and producing a number of
different vowels and consonants, as well as combinations such as ba-ba-ba and ga-gaga.
This type of sound production is described as babbling In the later babbling stage,
around nine to ten months, there are recognizable intonation patterns to the consonant
and vowel combinations being produced, as well as variation in the combinations such
as ba-ba-da-da. Nasal sounds also become more common and certain syllable sequences
such as ma-ma-ma and da-da-da are inevitably interpreted by parents as versions
of “mama” and “dada” and repeated back to the child.
As children begin to pull themselves into a standing position during the tenth and
eleventh months, they become capable of using their vocalizations to express emotions
and emphasis. This late babbling stage is characterized by more complex syllable
combinations (ma-da-ga-ba), a lot of sound-play and attempted imitations. This “prelanguage”
use of sound provides the child with some experience of the social role of
speech because adults tend to react to the babbling, however incoherent, as if it is
actually the child’s contribution to social interaction.
One note of caution should be sounded at this point. Child language researchers
certainly report very carefully on the age of any child whose language they study.
However, they are also very careful to point out that there is substantial variation
among children in terms of the age at which particular features of linguistic development
occur. So, we should always treat statements concerning development stages
such as “by six months” or “by the age of two” as approximate and subject to variation
in individual children.
few months of life, the child gradually becomes capable of producing sequences of
vowel-like sounds, particularly high vowels similar to [i] and [u]. By four months of
age, the developing ability to bring the back of the tongue into regular contact with the
back of the palate allows the infant to create sounds similar to the velar consonants [k]
and [ɡ], hence the common description as “cooing” or “gooing” for this type of
production. Speech perception studies have shown that by the time they are five
months old, babies can already hear the difference between the vowels [i] and [a]
and discriminate between syllables like [ba] and [ɡa].
Between six and eight months, the child is sitting up and producing a number of
different vowels and consonants, as well as combinations such as ba-ba-ba and ga-gaga.
This type of sound production is described as babbling In the later babbling stage,
around nine to ten months, there are recognizable intonation patterns to the consonant
and vowel combinations being produced, as well as variation in the combinations such
as ba-ba-da-da. Nasal sounds also become more common and certain syllable sequences
such as ma-ma-ma and da-da-da are inevitably interpreted by parents as versions
of “mama” and “dada” and repeated back to the child.
As children begin to pull themselves into a standing position during the tenth and
eleventh months, they become capable of using their vocalizations to express emotions
and emphasis. This late babbling stage is characterized by more complex syllable
combinations (ma-da-ga-ba), a lot of sound-play and attempted imitations. This “prelanguage”
use of sound provides the child with some experience of the social role of
speech because adults tend to react to the babbling, however incoherent, as if it is
actually the child’s contribution to social interaction.
One note of caution should be sounded at this point. Child language researchers
certainly report very carefully on the age of any child whose language they study.
However, they are also very careful to point out that there is substantial variation
among children in terms of the age at which particular features of linguistic development
occur. So, we should always treat statements concerning development stages
such as “by six months” or “by the age of two” as approximate and subject to variation
in individual children.
The one-word stage
Between twelve and eighteen months, children begin to produce a variety of recognizable
single-unit utterances. This period, traditionally called the one-word stage, is
characterized by speech in which single terms are uttered for everyday objects such as
“milk,” “cookie,” “cat,” “cup” and “spoon” (usually pronounced [pun]). Other forms
such as [ʌsæ] may occur in circumstances that suggest the child is producing a version
of What’s that, so the label “one-word” for this stage may be misleading and a term
such as “single-unit” would be more accurate. We sometimes use the term holophrastic
(meaning a single form functioning as a phrase or sentence) to describe an utterance
that could be analyzed as a word, a phrase, or a sentence.
While many of these holophrastic utterances seem to be used to name objects, they
may also be produced in circumstances that suggest the child is already extending their
use. An empty bed may elicit the name of a sister who normally sleeps in the bed, even
in the absence of the person named. During this stage, then, the child may be capable of
referring to Karen and bed, but is not yet ready to put the forms together to produce a
more complex phrase. Well, it is a lot to expect from someone who can only walk with
a stagger and has to come down stairs backwards.
single-unit utterances. This period, traditionally called the one-word stage, is
characterized by speech in which single terms are uttered for everyday objects such as
“milk,” “cookie,” “cat,” “cup” and “spoon” (usually pronounced [pun]). Other forms
such as [ʌsæ] may occur in circumstances that suggest the child is producing a version
of What’s that, so the label “one-word” for this stage may be misleading and a term
such as “single-unit” would be more accurate. We sometimes use the term holophrastic
(meaning a single form functioning as a phrase or sentence) to describe an utterance
that could be analyzed as a word, a phrase, or a sentence.
While many of these holophrastic utterances seem to be used to name objects, they
may also be produced in circumstances that suggest the child is already extending their
use. An empty bed may elicit the name of a sister who normally sleeps in the bed, even
in the absence of the person named. During this stage, then, the child may be capable of
referring to Karen and bed, but is not yet ready to put the forms together to produce a
more complex phrase. Well, it is a lot to expect from someone who can only walk with
a stagger and has to come down stairs backwards.
The two-word stage
Depending on what we count as an occurrence of two distinct words used together,
the two-word stage can begin around eighteen to twenty months, as the child’s
vocabulary moves beyond fifty words. By the time the child is two years old, a variety
of combinations, similar to baby chair, mommy eat, cat bad, will usually have
appeared. The adult interpretation of such combinations is, of course, very much
tied to the context of their utterance. The phrase baby chair may be taken as an
expression of possession (= this is baby’s chair), or as a request (= put baby in
chair), or as a statement (= baby is in the chair), depending on different
circumstances.
Whatever it is that the child actually intends to communicate through such expressions,
the significant functional consequences are that the adult behaves as if communication
is taking place. That is, the child not only produces speech, but also receives
feedback confirming that the utterance worked as a contribution to the interaction.
Moreover, by the age of two, whether the child is producing 200 or 300 distinct
“words,” he or she will be capable of understanding five times as many, and will
typically be treated as an entertaining conversational partner by the principal
caregiver.
the two-word stage can begin around eighteen to twenty months, as the child’s
vocabulary moves beyond fifty words. By the time the child is two years old, a variety
of combinations, similar to baby chair, mommy eat, cat bad, will usually have
appeared. The adult interpretation of such combinations is, of course, very much
tied to the context of their utterance. The phrase baby chair may be taken as an
expression of possession (= this is baby’s chair), or as a request (= put baby in
chair), or as a statement (= baby is in the chair), depending on different
circumstances.
Whatever it is that the child actually intends to communicate through such expressions,
the significant functional consequences are that the adult behaves as if communication
is taking place. That is, the child not only produces speech, but also receives
feedback confirming that the utterance worked as a contribution to the interaction.
Moreover, by the age of two, whether the child is producing 200 or 300 distinct
“words,” he or she will be capable of understanding five times as many, and will
typically be treated as an entertaining conversational partner by the principal
caregiver.
Telegraphic speech
Between two and two-and-a-half years old, the child begins producing a large number
of utterances that could be classified as “multiple-word” speech. The salient feature
of these utterances ceases to be the number of words, but the variation in word forms
that begins to appear. Before we investigate this development, we should note a
stage that is described as telegraphic speech. This is characterized by strings of
words (lexical morphemes) in phrases or sentences such as this shoe all wet, cat
drink milk and daddy go bye-bye. The child has clearly developed some sentencebuilding
capacity by this stage and can get the word order correct. While this type
of telegram-format speech is being produced, a number of grammatical inflections
begin to appear in some of the word forms and simple prepositions (in, on) are also
used.
By the age of two-and-a-half, the child’s vocabulary is expanding rapidly and
the child is initiating more talk while increased physical activity includes running
and jumping. By three, the vocabulary has grown to hundreds of words and pronunciation
has become closer to the form of adult language. At this point, it is worth
considering what kind of influence the adults have in the development of the child’s
speech.
of utterances that could be classified as “multiple-word” speech. The salient feature
of these utterances ceases to be the number of words, but the variation in word forms
that begins to appear. Before we investigate this development, we should note a
stage that is described as telegraphic speech. This is characterized by strings of
words (lexical morphemes) in phrases or sentences such as this shoe all wet, cat
drink milk and daddy go bye-bye. The child has clearly developed some sentencebuilding
capacity by this stage and can get the word order correct. While this type
of telegram-format speech is being produced, a number of grammatical inflections
begin to appear in some of the word forms and simple prepositions (in, on) are also
used.
By the age of two-and-a-half, the child’s vocabulary is expanding rapidly and
the child is initiating more talk while increased physical activity includes running
and jumping. By three, the vocabulary has grown to hundreds of words and pronunciation
has become closer to the form of adult language. At this point, it is worth
considering what kind of influence the adults have in the development of the child’s
speech.
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